A History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1900-

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Setup

I haven't done a full RTW2 game in quite a while, so I thought I'd jump back in with a game as my favorite nation, Japan.

The basic game setup: 1900 start, super large fleet sizes, harsh peace deals on, manual build on. 

Introduction

At the turn of the 19th century, the world's navies were in a state of transition, no more so than in Japan, which had seen rapid modernization since the Meiji restoration. The Imperial Japanese Navy was still mid-transformation from a force of wood-and-sail warships and ironclads suitable for coastal defense, to a modern, steam-and-steel navy capable of worldwide power projection and competing with other global naval powers.

Balance of Power, January 1900

Japan's most dangerous potential rival would be Russia. Unlike the other great powers, Russia had the facilities needed to maintain a force in Japan's home waters large enough to blockade the home islands. Russia had a bellicose foreign policy and territorial ambitions in what Japan considered their sphere of influence. For this reason, one of Japan's early goals was to achieve and maintain parity in battleship construction, despite having only 60% of their naval budget. By 1900, Japan has 2/3rds as many battleships in service, but with two more under construction, but due to budget shortfalls is considerably weaker in cruisers - Russia maintains a large fleet of powerful protected cruisers of over 6,000 tons.

Japanese Order of Battle, January 1900

Japan's modern naval assets at the turn of the century consisted of the following:

Fuso-class Battleship

Purchased in the mid-1890s, these ships were Japan's first modern steel battleships. British-designed and built, they were decently capable ships for their time and displacement. Four ships were in service: Fuso, Yashima, Asahi, and Iki.

Shikishima-class battleship

Japan's most modern battleships, this class of ship was closely based on the British Repulse-class battleship. Two ships, Shikishima and Sagami, were already in service, with two more, Suwo and Mikasa, under construction.

Asama-class Armoured Cruiser

The Asama-class armoured cruisers were a generalist design, with decent speed, armament, and protection, designed to fit Japan's modest budget. Two ships, Asama and Tokiwa are already in service, with two more, Iwate and Izumo, under construction.

Izumi-class Protected Cruiser

The Izumi-class are a particularly capable class of protected cruisers, with a 22-knot top speed, and a broadside of 6 12" guns. Four ships are in service: Izumi, Naniwa, Takachiho, and Yaeyama.

Unebi-class Protected Cruiser

The Unebi-class are a class of third-class cruisers, designed primarily for trade protection. Six ships are in service: Unebi, Chiyoda, Itsukushima, Chishima, Matsushima, and Hashidate.

Hakaze-class Torpedo Boat Destroyer

The Hakaze-class are typical torpedo boat destroyers of the turn of the century, short-ranged, with a 27-knot top speed and a mix of gun & torpedo armament. Two dozen ships are in service: Hakaze, Akikaze, Minekaze, Namikaze, Hokaze, Numakaze, Okikaze, Nokaze, Sawakaze, Shimakaze, Yukaze, Yakaze, Shiokaze, Tachikaze, Asakaze, Asanagi, Harukaze, Hayate, Hatakaze, Matsukaze, Kamikaze, Yunagi, Oite, and Fumizuki.

Early Developments

August of 1900 sees Japan participate in global arms-reduction treaty negotiations. The final treaty sets a limit for future battleship construction to 18,000 tons displacement and a 12" gun armament. This treaty is aimed squarely at Great Britain, which is forced to scrap 3 battleships under construction, as their gun caliber exceeds the limit. November sees Izumo commissioned, and two new cruisers, Azuma and Kasuga, ordered.

These cruisers are essentially a subclass of the preceding Asama-class, with identical armament and layout but featuring slightly improved protection in exchange for a 5% increase in displacement. 

Cruiser Iwate and battleship Mikasa enter service at the end of December 1900, freeing up funds for the construction of two more Shikishima-class battleships, Iwami and Hizen, which are ordered in January 1901. Suwo commissions in April.

An Unexpected War

Japanese-Russian relations had been strained before, as both nations had competing interests in China and elsewhere in east Asia. Both nations participated in the international force sent to quell the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, but it soon became to clear to the Japanese that the Russian Empire was using the pretext of the rebellion to solidify its own position in Manchuria and threaten Japanese interests in Korea and elsewhere. Urged on by the German Kaiser, who in private correspondence to the Czar railed against the "Yellow Peril" of a potential Japanese-Chinese alliance, the Russian Empire adopted an extremely aggressive attitude towards the Japanese, who, in 1901, had no foreign allies among the great powers. By June 1901, the diplomatic situation had reached crisis level. 

The Balance of Power, 1901

The Japanese leadership were blindsided by the sudden crisis, not expecting the risk of war for another 4-5 years. The Japanese admiralty, for their part, urged their own government to follow an aggressive tack against the Russians. Russia had only a slight edge in capital ships, and a huge European coastline to protect. Due to the drastic difference in naval budgets, Russia's numerical advantage would only increase, thus, the Japanese Navy argued that the best time to fight a war would be as soon as possible, before the latest Russian building program could be completed. This argument found a receptive audience in the highest level of government. By the end of August 1901, the decision was made: Japan would strike first.

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9/13/1901 - Battle of Port Arthur

1910: Admiral Togo Heihachiro leans against the bridge rail of battleship Sagami, gazing out into the black of a clear, calm night. His fleet is steaming at a comfortable 14 knots, thirty miles southeast of Port Arthur. The hastily-assembled force consists of the battleships Sagami and Shikishima and the armored cruisers Izumo, Tokiwa, and Iwate, escorted by protected cruisers Yaeyama, Naniwa, Izumi and Takachiho. His orders are to command a surprise destroyer attack against the Russian Pacific Squadron at Port Arthur. Unfortunately, logistics issues and a shortage of coal have reduced his destroyer force to only six ships, but if the destroyer attack fails, he's confident his battleships can overcome the small Russian squadron.

1930: The destroyer force spots a Russian ship at anchor, identifying it as a patrol boat, although it's probably a Russian torpedo boat destroyer. They maneuver past the anchored ship, without opening fire, but it's likely they've been spotted.

2020: The Japanese destroyers miss the Russian force at anchor, and end up steaming in circles two miles east of Port Arthur, searching for an enemy that isn't there. They spot and trade fire with the coastal batteries on the east side of Port Arthur. At the same time, the Japanese battleships steam past a Russian Bedovi-class destroyer at anchor on approach to the port, and open up with their quick-firing guns at the hapless enemy ship.


2100: Sagami spots an unidentified ship to starboard at a distance of 3,000 yards, identifying it as a Russian battleship, heading straight past them. This is the 15,500-ton Imperator Nikolai I-class battleship Pervenets. They turn to give chase, firing at Pervenets's destroyer escorts.


2115: the sun rises, and the Japanese find themselves engaged with Pervenets at a distance of 3,000 yards. The Russian battleship briefly turns towards the Japanese, then away, after the range closes to less than 2,000 yards. Both sides score several 12" hits on each other, and a hit to Sagami robs her of a knot of maximum speed, a minor but decisive difference.

At 2149, Pervenets turns away to the south. The Russian seems to be maintaining at least a 2-knot speed advantage, and the range begins to open. Togo signals the supporting cruisers to move in independently, in hopes of forcing the enemy to battle. Unfortunately, Russian gunnery proves superior, and Iwate and then Izumo are slowed enough by multiple hits for the Russian battleship to pull away and escape.


At 2355, the Russian armoured cruisers Gromoboi and Pamyat Azova turn towards the Japanese, apparently trying to cover Pervenets' escape, but it proves to be a fatal mistake. By this time, the Japanese gunnery improves significantly, scoring several 6" and 8" hits in quick succession, and slowing the Gromoboi to 10 knots and setting her on fire. This loss of speed allows the Japanese battleships to pull along outside and contribute their 12" guns to the battering of the Russian cruisers, and both are left crippled and burning just outside the safety of Port Arthur. At 0114, Gromoboi is torpedoed by Sagami, one of the vanishingly rare instances of a battleship scoring a hit with a torpedo.

With the two armoured cruiser presumed to be mortally wounded, Togo orders his force to reengage the enemy protected cruisers and Pervenets, if possible, but his force is slowed due to battle damage and he's unable to close, so he turns towards home after a short chase.


At battle's end, the Japanese have sunk the Gromoboi and left Pamyat Azova abandoned and burning, although after the raid she will be saved from total destruction and hastily repaired. The Russians have also lost the destroyer Verni, a patrol boat, and a pair of merchant ships. Armoured cruiser Izumo is moderately damaged, having taken a single 12" and 19 6" shells. Sagami is lightly damaged with 4 12" and 23 medium shell hits. Pervenets, by contrast, was hit only twice by Japanese 12" guns and by 11 6" and 8" shells. Shikishima was hit by only a single stray 6" shell that did no damage. While the gunnery of the Japanes battleships was somewhat lacking, Tokiwa displayed excellent gunnery, scoring 19 hits with her main 8" battery, a hit rate of 6%, far surpassing most of the battle's other participants.

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9/24/1901 - First Battle of Sokolovsky Bay
Ten days after the outbreak of war, Armoured cruiser Asama, screened by Yaeyama, Takachiho, and Naniwa, is steaming towards the Russian coast near Vladivostok on a shore bombardment mission. At 0718, Naniwa spots a Russian armoured cruiser to port, before reevaluating it as a 6,600-ton Vesta-class protected cruiser. Behind it follows an actual Russian armoured cruiser, the Varyag-class Bayan. Asama's commander signals his screening cruisers to adopt a line ahead formation and move in to support his ship.


By 0830, the Bayan has pulled broadside to Asama, and both ships are firing on each other. Asama is first to find the range, scoring several hits with her 8" guns. Trailing by several thousand yards, Yaeyama and Takachiho are in a loose line-ahead formation and engaged in a duel of their own with a Vesta-class cruiser. Unfortunately for Asama, her opponent quickly adjusts fire, scoring ten hits of her own in quick succession, which cause severe damage to Asama's superstructure and upper works.


But the course of battle traps Bayan between the Japanese cruisers and the coast, and as night falls, Yaeyama speeds forward to support Asama. By 1017, Asama and Yaeyama are chasing Bayan east, while Naniwa trails and engages one of Bayan's escorts, the 6,000-ton Pallada-class protected cruiser Diana. With Asama slowed by battle damage, Bayan is pulling away and could escape into the night. With Bayan trapped against the shore and unable to maneuver freely, The Japanese commander orders a squadron of four destroyers, led by Tachikaze, to attempt a torpedo attack.


At 1041, despite suffering some damage in return, the Japanese destroyers execute their torpedo attack, with Hakaze scoring a fatal hit on Bayan. At around the same time, Russian destroyer Bedovi is mortally wounded by shells from Japanese protected cruisers and destroyers. Asama turns 180 degrees to engage Diana, which is engaged with Takachiho and Naniwa.


By 1100, Diana is trapped, and subject to withering bombardment from Naniwa and Takachiho on one side, and Yaeyama and Asama on the other. The Russian cruiser is slowing to 10 knots, and by now has no hope of escaping. In one final act of defiance, the burning cruiser manages to hit and sink Tachikaze with a torpedo during a close pass, moments before a 3" shell from Hakaze, fired from 700 yards, starts a flash fire that detonates the ship's magazine and blows Diana apart.

The Japanese take up station offshore to complete their shore bombardment mission, but at 1300, the remaining Russian Vesta-class protected cruiser, 6,600-ton Avrora, sails out of the darkness and begins harassing them. Unfortunately, by now, most of the Japanese force has expended almost all their ammunition, and Asama is damaged enough to have little hope of catching Avrora. Yaeyama engages her in a nearly hour-long gunnery duel, but eventually pulls too far away from the wounded flagship and has to turn away.


The Japanese attempt to finish their bombardment mission, but lack of ammunition and repeated harrassment from Avrora force them to concede, content with having sunk a pair of cruisers and the destroyer Bedovi for the loss of Tachikaze. Asama is moderately damaged, suffering 12 medium shell hits and considerable superstructure damage, and Shimakaze is badly damaged, having been hit 6 times by 3" and 4" shells.

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10/5/1901 - Battle of Tsugaru Strait

2031: In the twilight hours just before dawn, Armoured cruisers Tokiwa and Izumo, escorted by Naniwa and two squadrons of destroyers, are steaming northwest when lookouts spot unidentified ships to starboard. As the sun rises, they identify one of the vessels bearing down on them as an Imperator Nikolai I-class battleship, and three destroyers. The Japanese force commanders fancies his chance against a single battleship, and turns to starboard to engage.

Russian Destroyer Attack
Twenty minutes later, the cruisers are chasing the presumed battleship, an Oprichnik-class cruiser, and three enemy destroyers. Izumo and Tokiwa successfully evade an attack by the enemy destroyers, with their torpedoes spotted passing harmlessly ahead. In response, they open up with their quick-firing 6" guns, quickly inflicting fatal damage on destroyer Bezuprechni.

By 2111, it's clear that the enemy "battleship" is actually the last Gromoboi-class armoured cruiser, the Pamyat Azova, the very same ship that was nearly wrecked at the Battle of Port Arthur. The Gromoboi-class is an 8,000-ton cruiser armed with a pair of 10" guns, and no match for the pair of Japanese cruisers. The Japanese commander presses the attack.

Izumi and Yaeyama Offer Assistance
The protected cruisers Izumi and Yaeyama, operating independently on their own patrol route, have spotted the battle in progress and sped forward to assist. They land a few hits on Pamyat Azova before passing behind to engage her escorts, which are now about 15,000 yards behind. Izumi and Yaeyama engage and sink the 3,000-ton protected cruiser Griden and Destroyer Zhivoi.

Pamyat Azova Abandoned
By 2351, fires on Pamyat Azova are raging out of control and the abandoned cruiser runs aground. Destroyer Legki briefly tries to assist but is herself chased down and sunk.
The Japanese have decisively won another cruiser engagement, with two cruisers and three destroyers sunk. The Russian Navy now possesses only a single armored cruiser.

The Result

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11/23/1901 - The Battle of Phusan

Japanese Cruisers Give Chase

Armoured cruisers Iwate, Asama, and Tokiwa have sortied to intercept a potential enemy raid off the eastern coast of Korea. At 0417, they spot a trio of enemy protected cruisers, esxcorted by a pair of destroyers. These are the 6,600-ton Avrora, 6,000-ton Pallada, and 3,000-ton Oprichnik. The Russians turn to flee, but are too slow to escape. The result is a foregone conclusion. At 0554, Pallada begins to slow, receiving the full effect of the Japanese broadside 6" quick-firing guns. Yaeyama and Takachiho are signaled to break formation and finish her.

Russian Cruisers Under Fire

Meanwhile, the Japanese armoured cruisers focus on Avrora and Oprichnik, setting Oprichnik on fire and slowing Avrora to 15 knots. Oprichnik's fires soon rage out of control and her crew abandons her just before the Japanese return to blast the smoking wreck apart. As night falls, Avrora almost escapes, but the Japanese are able to reacquire her some miles to the north and their destroyers execute a textbook torpedo attack, scoring a fatal hit. The last remaining Russian ships, destroyers Krepki and Iskusni, are damaged but are able to slip away in the darkness.

As the night deepens, the weather worsens, and destroyer Yukaze, having been hit by a single 6" shell, begins shipping water and founders tantalizingly close to the safety of port. The cruiser Pallada, meanwhile, despite having been left for dead, is able to bring her fires under control but also founders in the end.

The Result

In the aftermath of the battle, Japanese troops successfully take control of Port Arthur, although fighting continues elsewhere on the peninsula.

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1/31/1902 - The Second Battle of Sokolovsky Bay
Japanese cruisers Asama, Iwate, and Izumo, screened by Naniwa, Takachiho, Yaeyama and Izumi, are tasked with another shore bombardment mission near Vladivostok. At 0212, the Japanese spot a force of Russian cruisers. This is the last remaining Russian armored cruiser Varyag, as well as the protected cruisers Boyarin, Izumrud, and Voevoda, escorted by 9 destroyers. The Japanese eagerly give chase, driving the Russians north, towards the coast.

Varyag Chased
Constrained by the coastline, Varyag can't keep the Japanese from closing the range, and by 0333, all three Japanese cruisers are firing on her. For her part, Varyag is able to score over two dozen hits on Asama, setting her on fire. It's not until the protected cruisers Yaeyama, Naniwa, Izumi and Takachiho advance to even closer range and contribute their own 6" guns that Varyag begins to slow under the weight of Japanese fire, at about 0700.

Varyag Under Fire
The sun begins to set at 0749, with the Japanese still in pursuit of the stubborn Russian armored cruiser. At 0850, after more than five hours of combat, Varyag's superstructure is burning, and she turns from a southeasterly course to the northwest. This takes the Japanese back of the path of her escorts, and a frenzied melee erupts, with the Japanese now being swarmed by almost a dozen enemy destroyers and several protected cruisers. Luckily for the Japanese, the Russians score no torpedo hits, and sink or damage several enemy destroyers, although shell hits from an enemy protected cruiser reignite Asama's superstructure.

At 1100, the Japanese reacquire the burning Varyag, and Japanese destroyers score a trio of torpedo hits, although by this point, the blazing ship is already abandoned. The last shots are fired around 1200, when the Japanese cruisers finish off a crippled enemy destroyer.

The Result
It's another disastrous defeat for the Russian Navy. The loss of Varyag leaves them without any armored cruisers; what's more, seven destroyers have been lost: Iskusni, Zharki, Letuchi, Zvonki, Burni, Metki, and Ispolnitelni, with Krepki heavily damaged. The Japanese suffer moderate damage to Asama, which has withstood 30 7" and 9" shells and been set on fire twice.

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2/11/1902 - The Third Battle of Sokolovsky Bay
Tokiwa, Iwate, and Izumo, supported by Yaeyama, Takachiho, and destroyers, make a third attempt to bombard a Russian supply depot east of Vladivostok. Their shelling is interrupted by the arrival of four enemy protected cruisers: the 6,600-ton Vesta-class Rynda, Vladimir, and Novik, and the 3,000-ton Oprichnik-class Izumrud. Once again, the Japanese eagerly give chase, and once again, the large Russian protected cruisers are no match for three Japanese armored cruisers.

The Chase
The Enemy Scatters
The Japanese keep closing, and hammer away at the enemy with their quick-firing guns, setting one Vesta-class cruiser on fire, and disabling another, scattering the Russian formation. Rynda is hit by a torpedo, while burning Novik's rudder is jammed to port, causing her to spin in circles helplessly.

The Result
With night about to fall, three enemy cruisers are dead in the water and burning, so the Japanese focus their efforts on the helpless Vladimir before, satisfied she's doomed, they move on to engage their land target. They accomplish their mission an return home triumphantly, having sunk all four enemy cruisers with only light damage in return.

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3/22/1902 - The Battle of Laperouse Straits

Battleships Mikasa, Suwo, Shikishima and Sagami are conducting a patrol off the northern coast of Hokkaido, with armored cruisers Izumo, Asama, and Tokiwa steaming behind and Iwate several miles ahead on scout duty. At 0454, Iwate signals the flagship that a column of unidentified ships is approaching from the northeast, initially identifying them as cruisers.

Russian Battleships Spotted
0520: The Japanese battleships have closed into visual range with what turns out to be three Russian battleships: Evstafi, Gangut, and Tri Svyatitelya. Admiral Togo aboard Mikasa believes his armored cruisers give him a tactical advantage, and decides to try to force them to battle. The Russian column turns away to the south, perilously close to the coastline, then makes an about-face line abreast turn back out to sea, then back west, with the Japanese in hot pursuit.

Japanese Cruisers Engage
0730: Izumo, Asama, and Tokiwa have pulled ahead and are directly engaging the Russian battleships; the Japanese battleships are offering what support they can from their forward turrets, but are too slow to close the range. The cruisers focus their fire on Evstafi, which is trailing the other battleships by several thousand yards. The 12" guns of the Russian battleships are blazing away at the cruisers with very little effect; both sides are scoring almost all their hits with their quick-firing 6" secondaries.

The sun begins to set at 0830 with the Japanese still in pursuit. At around this time, Evstafi is set on fire and begins to slow further. She suffers a half-dozen 8" shell hits in quick succession and at 0904, for reasons unknown, Evstafi begins a steep turn to starboard, passing behind Tokiwa at a distance of less than a thousand yards. With the leading Russian battleships now lost in the darkness, the Japanese battleships are able to catch up Evstafi and contribute their own firepower.

At 0953, tragedy strikes. The Japanese destroyers have circled around and are approaching Evstafi in the opposite direction to the Japanese battleships. As Evstafi completes a 180 degree turn ahead of the Japanese battle line, Hakaze wrecklessly shoots a torpedo at the broadside of the battleship which misses and continues on into the approaching battleline, hitting Izumo's magazine and destroying the ship instantly.

Pursuit of Evstafi lasts until 1111, when her machinery is finally disabled under overwhelming fire and her superstructure set on fire. A pair of torpedoes, that this time hit their intended target, seals her fate. While returning to port, the Japanese make intermittent contact with an enemy protected cruiser, but are unable to chase it down.

The Result
Despite sinking an enemy battleship, the loss of Izumo is an embarrasing blow to the Japanese, especially after the cause of her sinking is determined. Hakaze's captain is relieved of command, and her torpedo officer, burdened by the many hundreds of lives lost to his mistake, commits suicide. In addition to Izumo being sunk, the destroyers Akikaze, Nokaze, Shimakaze, and Yakaze are badly damaged. Despite the loss of a valuable armored cruiser, the Japanese have won the first clash between steel battleship fleets in history. Naval observers take note of just how difficult it is to sink a battleship with the shell technology available, Evstafi having withstood 23 12" shells and almost 100 6" and 8" shells before finally succumbing.

Action of 4/20/1902
While operating alone off Hokkaido, armored cruiser Iwate spots two Vesta-class protected cruisers leading a flotilla of dsetroyers. She chases, sinking the destroyer Zavetni and leaving cruiser Voevoda for dead, but unknown to the Japanese the Russian crew is able to bring her fires under control and save their ship by a slim margin.

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5/21/1902 - The Battle of Ulleung
The strategic situation is deteriorating for the Russians, with such heavy losses to their cruiser fleet. However, they were able to reinforce Vladivostok with their Baltic and Black Sea battle fleets, now maintaining an even number of battleships. As Russian attempts to cut off Japanese trade and supply lines through cruisers have resoundly failed, the Russian war plan depends on winning a decisive battleship engagement, which led to the sortie that resulted in Evstafi's loss two months ago.

Russian Battle Fleet Spotted
On 21 May, cruisers Tokiwa and Asama are scouting for the Japanese battlefleet directly west of the island of Ulleung in the Sea of Japan. At 0430, Tokiwa spots an unidentified vessel to the northeast, which turns away. Ten minutes later, a line of eight Russian battleships is spotted steaming towards her. The cruisers turn away south towards the Japanese battle line, which is arrayed in two columns: Mikasa, Shikishima, and Sagami, and Iki, Fuso, Yashima, Asahi and Suwo.

Japanese Cruisers Cross the Russian T
The Russians have no armored cruisers left, and few destroyers, so Admiral Togo is willing to offer battle despite the relatively even arrangement of forces. At 0520, Tokiwa and Asama are ordered to cut across the Russian line, while the battleships close the range.

Russian Retreat
At 0540, the Russian battleships turn together towards the Japanese, into a line abreast formation, and then turn back to the north, evidently looking to withdraw. Suwo takes a hit that knocks her out of line, and at 0623, one of Fuso's funnels is toppled by a 12" shell.

At 0634, a lucky 6" shell hits cruiser Asama and disables her electrical power, causing her to slow significantly. but the Japanese are scoring their own hits, one of which jams Russian flagship Imperator Aleksandr I's steering gear at 0653, sending her spinning helplessly to port.

Russian Formation Splits
By 0737, Admiral Togo has split three enemy battleships away from the lead formation, with Imperator Aleksandr I trailing far behind, but his ships have used up most of their ammunition, and Yashima and Asahi are staying in formation with Fuso, which is too slow catch up to the main fight. A 12" shell from Suwo destroys Imperator Aleksandr I's bridge, sending the Russian flagship careening northward with no one in control, and unfortunately killing the Russian fleet commander, Admiral Makarov. In the main melee, Battleship Dvenadtsat Apostolov is set on fire.

Russians Regroup
The Russians begin to regroup at 0814, as the captain of Pervenets takes control of the situation, and turns the northern half of the Russian force back south to support the crippled and cut-off half of the fleet. Cruisers Tokiwa and Asama move in to finish off the burning Devenadtsat Apostolov, leaving her burning and dead in the water, but by 0922, the other Russian battleships have managed to regroup and are moving southeast as a single formation.

The sun begins to set at 1030, forcing the Japanese to call off the chase. They turn back to the northwest, in hopes of finding and finishing Dvenadtsat Apostolov, but find nothing. The Russian battleship has in fact already burned and sunk.

Result
The Russians have also lost the destroyer Krepki, and the Japanese have suffered heavy damage to Shimakaze, Hokaze, and Hakaze. Once again, the poor effectiveness of both side's heavy shells is apparent, with Mikasa suffering only light damage despite 12 2" shell hits, and most of the damage to Dvenadtsat Apostolov attributable to quick-firing 6" guns setting her superstructure on fire.

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Action of 6/3/1902

Russian Battleships Sighted
0700: Iwate and Tokiwa are scouting ahead of battleships Suwo, Mikasa, and Yashima in the Sea of Japan when an unidentified vessel is again spotted to the north. They turn away as a column of four 15,500-ton Imperator Nikolai I-class battleships bears down on them.

Perhaps overconfident, the Japanese decide to try their luck, and both forces square off in a conventional line battle. Japanese gunnery is initially superior, and at 0827, Imperator Aleksandr I, the third Russian battleship in line, takes a critical hit to her machinery spaces and begins to fall out of formation. At 0834, a 12" shell strikes the Japanese flagship, Suwo, on the secondary gun deck starting a major fire.

The Battle Rages
At 0856, Iwate and Tokiwa turn to harrass Imperator Aleksandr I, whose rudder is jammed hard over starboard. The Japanese battleships are still engaged with their Russian counterparts, but the fire on Suwo is spreading. At 1000, the Japanese commander realizes his ship is at serious risk, and breaks off the pursuit, intending to help sink Imperator Aleksandr I, but Suwo is now capable of only 14 knots and Aleksandr slips away into the sunset. Suwo's fires are not brought under control until 1200, with most of her upper works reduced to a smouldering wreck. The Japanese commander transfers his flag aboard Mikasa, and resumes searching for Imperator Aleksandr I, but fails to find her.

Result
Although technically the first tactical Russian victory over the Japanese, the Russians miss a vital opportunity to make up for the last month's loss of Dvenadtsat Apostolov. The Russian admiral's lack of agression meant that the critically damaged Suwo would survive, and Imperator Aleksandr I would barely escape, only due to the setting sun. For the Japanese, it's a crucial reminder that they are not, in fact, invincible.

Action of 7/27/1902
While patrolling off Hokkaido, two squadrons of Japanese destroyers, totalling 10 ships, encounter a pair of Russian destroyers, Zorki and Moshhni, and engage, sinking Zorki, although Moshhni escapes with moderate damage under cover of darkness.

8/16/1902 - The Fourth Battle of Solokovsky Bay
Russian Cruisers Under Fire
Tokiwa, Iwate, and Asama, screened by Naniwa, Itsukushima, and Yaeyama, head towards Vladivostok in another attempt to bombard Russian shore targets, or to draw out the Russian fleet. At 0830, they pot a Russian cruiser force consisting of the protected cruisers Vesta, Boyarin, and Velikii Knyaz Konstantin, escorted by destroyers Molodetski and Moshhni. Once again, the Japanese give chase, and the Russian protected cruisers are both no match for Japanese armored cruisers, and too slow to escape. Even the fall of night can't save them, as Japanese are able to spot the intense fires started aboard their targets from a considerable distance.
The Result
Over the course of the next six hours, the entire enemy force is sunk in another devastating blow to the Russian cruiser force.

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9/16/1902 - The Battle of Mordvinova Bay

Mounting cruiser losses have caused the Russians to begin escorting vital supply convoys with battleships. On 16 September, Japanese battleships Sagami and Shikishima, supported by Iwate, Asama, and Tokiwa, set out to destroy one such convoy.

Russian Battleships Spotted
At 2113, they find the transports right where they're supposed to be, with a trio of Russian battleships moving to cover them. These are the ships Imperator Pavel I, Tri Svyatitelya and Gangut.

At 2126, Iwate, positioned ahead of the main force as a scout, is signalled to return to the main force for protection as the Russians move to engage. At 2200, the big guns of the Japanese battleships are in range. Although the Russians have one more battleship, the Japanese have through experience that having a force of armored cruisers can make up the difference. They chase the Russian battleships and push through the convoy, launching a devastating assault with their secondary batteries on the hapless transports, and dispatch some of their supporting destroyers to continue the convoy attack.

Japanese Attack
The Japanese press the attack, momentarily passing within 1,000 yards of the enemy, close enough for Iwate to fire her torpedoes at an enemy battleship, although no hits are scored. Tri Svyatitelya is set on fire by a flurry of close-range high-explosive shells. At 0002, Tri Svyatitelya turns into Tokiwa and Asama, cutting across Asama's bow, passing within several hundred yards, perhaps in an attempt to ram. Asama responds with a torpedo that hits, leaving Tri Svyatitelya dead in the water.

With Tri Svyatitelya burning and low in the water, the Japanese turn south to resume chasing Gangut and Imperator Pavel I, with Imperator Pavel I burning furiously. At 0101, Imperator Pavel I is struck by a torpedo from battleship Sagami, and a second from destroyer Okikaze, and begins to sink. Gangut is still making close to full speed, but the Japanese armored cruisers are able to chase her down and begin laying into her with their 6" and 8" guns, although a lucky hit jams Tokiwa's rudder to port, and Asama and Tokiwa break off. For almost half an hour, Iwate duels the enemy battleship herself, missing with her port torpedo launcher but setting Gangut's superstructure on fire and reducing her speed enough for the Japanese battleships to catch up. By 0230, Gangut is clearly doomed, and the other two battleships have sunk. The Japanese turn their attention to the transports, which are still within visual range.

The Result
The Japanese have won a decisive victory, sinking three enemy battleships, the destroyer Gremyashhi, armed merchantman Vilna, and all but one of the transports. Destroyer Akikaze is the only casualty, lost to progressive flooding. The Russian battle fleet, once standing at 9 ships, has been reduced to 4 - half of the Japanese force.

Action of 10/20/1902
Cruisers Iwate, Asama, and Tokiwa catch the Vesta-class protected cruiser Voevoda attempting to raid Japanese shipping. This time, the Russian sensibly runs away, managing to slip away into the setting sun before the Japanese can catch her.

Action of 12/21/1902
Chishima, a 3,000-ton third class cruiser, catches the 6,000-ton Pallada-class raider Flora on one of her raiding cruises. She engages the Russian cruiser in a gun duel amid rain and gale-force winds, before withdrawing with moderate damage.

Action of 1/30/1903
3rd-class cruiser Itsukushima sinks the raiding Russian armed merchantman Varshava.

Action of 2/13/1903
3rd-class cruiser Chiyoda chases the 3,000-ton Oprichnik-class cruiser Posadnik. This would be a relatively even fight, but the raider is able to escape with both sides suffering only light damage.

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3/18/1903 - Second Battle of Laperouse Straits
Armored cruisers Kasuga and Asama, laying in wait for Russian raiders, manage to surprise Voevoda and Posadnik. As in most previous engagements between Japanese armored cruisers and Russian protected cruisers, both ships are chased down and sunk.

Without the numbers to enforce a blockade, the only way for the Russian Navy to strike at Japan has been to raid their merchant shipping, but devastating losses to their cruiser fleet have made this all but impossible. After more than two years of war, the Japanese Navy is in total control of the waters of Northeast Asia.

The Result
At the end of March, the war finally ends, with Russia forced to pay Japan considerable reparations. The peace treaty is a major blow to the prestige of Russia and the Romanov dynasty, but also a major boost to Japanese prestige, forcing the world's great powers to recognize that Japan is an equal on the world stage, and now, the world's sixth greatest naval power.

Summary of Losses
Japanese losses were extremely low, losing the armored cruiser Izumo to a friendly-fire incident, as well as the destroyers Akikaze, Yukaze, and Tachikaze in combat.

Russian losses were extreme, having lost five of their nine pre-war battleships, all four armored cruisers, 14 protected cruisers, two armed merchantmen, and 18 destroyers, about half their fleet.

The Russians sank 97 Japanese merchant ships over the course of the war, while the Japanese sank 101 Russian merchants. Although many ships were sunk, in the end trade warfare had little overall effect on the conduct of the war.

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1903-1906: Post-War Developments

Armored cruisers Azuma and Kasuga commissioned in December 1902 and October 1902 respectively, at the very end of the war, with only Kasuga seeing combat action at the second battle of Laperouse Straits. As one of the chief lessons-learned of the war was the value of armored cruisers, particularly when operating in tandem with the battle fleet, a follow-on to the Asama and Azuma-class cruisers was sought.


That design was finalized as the Izumo-class. The Izumos would displace 30% more than the Azuma-class, with similar armor and a 22-knot top speed, but would boast a very heavy, uniform main battery of 10 8" guns, in two double turrets and six singles, giving them a maximum 7-gun 8" broadside. Two ships, Izumo and Aso, were ordered in January 1903, just before the end of the war.


Battleships Iwami and Hizen are also commissioned just before the end of hostilities, too late to see combat. The follow-up to the final Shikishima-class battleships is the battleship Satsuma, with the design finalized just before the end of the war and Satsuma herself laid down in April. With armor and armament comparable to existing ships, Satsuma's primary advantage would be her 21-knot top speed. War experience reinforced the value of being able to outrun the enemy, and Satsuma was intended to be the foundation of a fast battleship squadron. Unfortunately, post-war budget cuts would result in only one ship being built. Along with Satsuma, an order was made for Japan's first four coastal submarines.

In February 1904, the Japanese fleet begins refitting with newly-developed central fire control.


Aso and Izumo are commissioned in February 1905. These will end up being the last armoured cruisers built for Japan, as they turn their focus back to battleships. The follow-up to Satsuma is the Kashima-class, of which two ships are ordered: Kashima and Settsu. These ships are 16,800-ton "semi-dreadnoughts", armed with a heavy secondary battery of 8 9" guns.


The Japanese also want to bolster their light cruiser force, so four Akitsushima-class protected cruisers are ordered over the course of 1905: Akitsushima and Yoshino in May, and Suma and Chitose in October.


The Japanese destroyer force is also found to be in need of expansion. Six Akikaze-class destroyers are ordered in November 1906: Akikaze, Tachikaze, Yukaze, Kikuzuki, Mochizuki, and Kisaragi. Six more will be ordered in March 1907: Mikazuki, Mutsuki, Minazuki, Nagatsuki, Satsuki, and Uzuki. These ships improve on the preceding Hakaze-class with heavier 4" guns, as well as greatly improved speed and range.

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1907-1910: The Dawn of the Dreadnought Age


Comparison of First Generation Dreadnoughts, 1907

Yoshino is commissioned in April 1907, Settsu and Kashima in May, and Chitose in July. Early in 1907, the Italian Navy unveils the Attilio Regolo, the first "dreadnought" battleship to be commissioned. It's an ironic quirk of history that such battleships came to be known as dreadnoughts: although originally planned as such a ship, the ambitious design was rejected by conservative elements in the British leadership, and HMS Dreadnought herself was launched as a conventional, if powerful, "pre-dreadnought" battleship.

Nevertheless, the British soon realized their mistake, reversing the decision with the Canopus-class, commissioned mid-1907, but their tardiness allowed Italy, of all people, to claim the prestige of the first commissioned dreadnought battleship. These early first-generation dreadnoughts were uniformly ships of about 17,000 tons, with their main armament in three centerline double turrets. Italy, Great Britain, and Germany would all commission such a ship in 1907.


The commissioning of the Akitsushima and Kashima-class ships freed up enough funds for Japan to lay down their own dreadnought-type battleships in August 1907: Aki and Fuji. These ships would use the main armament arrangement common to most second-generation dreadnoughts: five turrets, with three centerline and two "wing" turrets, for a maximum broadside of 8 12" guns. They also adopted a uniform secondary battery of 5" guns, which would be used on future Japanese capital ships.

Aki and Fuji would commission at the very beginning of 1910, part of the second generation of dreadnought battleships.

Comparison of 2nd Generation Dreadnoughts, 1909-1911

Further growth of the Japanese economy would allow a third capital ship to be constructed. Russia had undertaken an extremely extensive armored cruiser building program following their defeat in the war, but existing armored cruiser designs were now obsolete in the face of the new "battlecruisers". Great Britain, the United States, and Italy all commissioned battleship-sized and -armed armored cruisers in 1907 and 1908 that could outrun any existing armored cruiser and destroy it at their leisure. As a result, Japan needed a similar design.


Battlecruiser Ikoma was laid down in November 1907, armed with four 12" double turrets in a staggered wing configuration capable of cross-deck firing, for a maximum 8-gun broadside. Ikoma would commission in April 1910, easily surpassing design speed on sea trails, making her by far the fastest battlecruiser of her generation.

Comparison of Early Battlecruisers, 1907-1911


An order for a new destroyer class was also made in July 1908, with six ships initially laid down: Akebono, Yayoi, Yuzuki, Asagiri, and Ayanami, with dozen more ordered in April 1909: Isonami, Hatsuyuki, Fubuki, Miyuki, Sazanami, Murakumo, Oboro, Sagiri, Shikinami, Shinonome, Shirayuki, Uranami. These ships would have greatly improved speed and armament, with 3 centerline 4" guns, and a pair of single torpedo launchers on either side, giving Japan the most powerful destroyer force in the world.


Once the Aki-class dreadnoughts were in service, three ships of the Hyuga-class were laid down in January 1910. These would be the first modern capital ships constructed in Japan. They would use the cross-deck firing arrangement of Ikoma, but with an additional rear-facing superfiring turret, for a maximum ten-gun broadside. They retained the 21-knot top speed of the Aki class, but with somewhat improved armor protection.


The Takasago class, ordered in May 1910, would Japan's last class of protected cruisers, intended to replace the Unebi-class in the raiding and commerce protection mission, while being fast enough to serve as scouts and screens for the new dreadnought battlefleet. Five ships were ordered: Takasago, Tsushima, Akashi, Chikuma, and Kasagi.


In June 1910, six Asama Maru-class minesweepers were ordered, as until now Japan lacked any vessels of the type.

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The Calm Before The Storm, 1911-1915


In July 1911, two Niitaka-class cruisers, Niitaka and Otowa, are ordered as the Takasago-class begin entering service. These are the IJN's first modern light cruisers. Although more ships are planned, they will ultimately not materialize before 1915, for reasons that will be explained shortly.


August 1912 sees six Ushio-class destroyers laid down: Ushio, Usugumo, Shirakumo, Yugiri, Ikazuchi, and Akatsuki. The ships improve on the preceding Akebono-class with a 33 knot top speed, and mounting their torpedo armament on the centerline in a pair of double torpedo launchers.


At the same time, two Tsukuba-class battlecruisers, Tsukuba and Kurama, are ordered. These will be the first Japanese "superdreadnoughts", with a battery of 8 14" guns in four centerline turrets, with a superfiring pair forward and aft. Although only capable of 26 knots, they have armor protection exceeding existing battleship types, making them arguably the first "fast battleships". A third ship, Hiei, is ordered in May 1913.

Japan's international relations have been strained since the end of the Russo-Japanese war, with tensions periodically running high with France, then Great Britain and the United States. The Japanese admiralty are under no illusions that they can take on the Royal Navy or the United States with their current force. Eventually, this leads to the Naval Secretary becoming involved, demanding four additional capital ships be built - but without increasing the naval budget to match.

This places the Japanese admiralty in an awkward position, as they can barely afford the three Tsukuba-class battlecruisers currently under construction. The task of designing a capital ship cheap to build in quantity, but capable enough to be useful, seems impossible.


Finally, the Japanese decide on a design for the Kongo-class battlecruisers. These lightweight, 20,000-ton battlecruisers are very lightly armored, but will be armed with the latest Japanese-designed 15" guns, that have superior performance to foreign guns. While not able to slug it out with enemy battleships, they should be quite able to destroy any enemy cruiser as well as contribute long-range fire in a fleet engagement. Four ships are ordered in February 1914 in order to comply with the secretary's demand: Kongo, Kirishima, Haruna, and Mimasaka, with Haruna and Mimasaka being cancelled in October after it becomes clear that Japan can in no way afford the new building program.


Another revolution in military technology is underway, as military aircraft become more useful and practical. The cancellation of Haruna and Mimasaka free up enough funds for Japan to lay down their first vessel dedicated to naval aviation, the 5,000-ton seaplane tender Tatuta Maru. If completed on time, she will be the first such ship in any navy.